FES International Policy Analysis Unit

FES Journal - International Politics and Society

Burma
China
Japan
Korea
Laos
Singapore
Vietnam

Gender Issues - Burma

In the context of a general absence of human rights in Burma, there are also clear discrepancies in the status of men and women. The current regime enforces the traditional notion that a woman's primary function is in the private sphere. Economic instability, as well as growing poverty, are great threats to overall welfare. Women bear much of the burden of providing for their families, but they still lack equal educational opportunities.

Traditionally women have not been the primary income earners. However, they have been responsible for making sure that the earnings their husbands brought home were spent appropriately and the family was well cared for. As the economic situation continues to deteriorate, women are leaving their traditional roles to look for paid employment. An increasing number of women therefore have dual responsibilities as wage earners and home-makers. There is, however, a lack of employment opportunity for women. It often requires money to acquire a job and the amount women have to pay is generally higher than the amount men are expected to pay.

Burma's State Peace and Development Council (SPDC) writes in its Country Report that under Burmese Law women have equal rights with men to vote and run for elections. This is paradoxical in that there are no elections in which to participate. Burma is ruled by military decree and civilian participation in decision-making processes is quite circumscribed. Currently there are no women in the cabinet or in ambassadorial positions, and only a few women occupy higher positions in government ministries. In 1996, the military regime founded the Mynmmar National Committee on Women's Affairs. Ironically the Chairperson and the Vice-Chair of this committee are men. This does not seem to be a situation wherein policies that give consideration to gender will be produced.

The June 19th birthday of Daw Aung San Suu Kyi's (leader of the National League for Democracy) was dedicated as Women of Burma Day in 1997. This day declares the essential role of women in Burma in the struggle for social justice, human rights and democracy.

Gender Issues - China

Under Chinese Law men and women are regarded on equal terms. In 1982, article 48 of the constitution gave women equal rights with respect to the family, politics, society, economics, and education. Despite this assurance, women have yet to achieve full equality. In Chinese society men are still regarded as being superior to women. Therefore, males are still given priority for education. Females leave the family when they marry, and many families believe that educating a male is the better investment. The school drop-out rate is quite high in China, especially in rural areas. Not surprisingly, 80 per cent of drop-outs are girls, as it is costly and time consuming for their parents to transport them to school. This ongoing discrimination against girls results in a higher percentage of female illiteracy (23.7 per cent) than male illiteracy (8.3 per cent).

Despite these figures, women in China have made remarkable progress towards attaining equality. The 1995 UN Fourth World Women's Conference in Huajro had a tremendous impact on China. Of the approximately 42 organizations dedicated to women's issue, over 95 per cent were founded since 1995. These organizations are dedicated to fighting illiteracy and poverty among women, as well as inequality in the workforce. The All-Chinese Women's Federation is China's largest non-governmental organization representing women and safe-guarding their rights and interests.

Chinese women are becoming an important political force. The percentage of women's representation in the Lower House amounts to 21.8, the second highest among the ASEAN states. Among China's 20 provinces, municipalities and autonomous regions, there are 18 female governors or vice governors. Women have become part and parcel of economic life in China. However, there are still wide gaps between the female and male labor force. For instance, 49.2 per cent of women participate in the labor force compared to 76.6 per cent for men.

Despite the many social and economic contributions made by women, they have very low status and seldom receive the appreciation they deserve. To sum up, it may be stated that even though women in China have come a long way, there is still much that remains to be done before equality between men and women is a reality.

Gender Issues - Japan

The Japanese constitution guarantees that there shall be no discrimination in political, economic or social relations on grounds of race, creed, sex, social status or family origin (Art. 14). Despite this assurance, and the country's rather advanced economic status in the world, the relative status of women in Japanese society is far lower than that of men. Moreover, discriminatory laws remain on the books. Article 733 of the Civil Code of Japan, for example, prohibits women from remarrying within six months of divorce. Japanese men, on the other hand, may remarry immediately after divorcing. The women's Bureau of the Ministry of Labor has reported that ìthe equality of men and women has not been fully achieved in practice because the traditional belief that women should stay at home is still deeply rootedî.

Women only form 39.5 per cent of the nation's total workforce. Only 50 per cent of Japanese women are engaged in economy, compared to 77.8 per cent of men. More than one-third of all women workers are part-time employees. Women constitute 67 per cent of the 11 million part-time workers in the country. However, women's wages are only 62.5 per cent of men's.

Japanese women are grossly under-represented on all political levels. In the national elections of June, 2000, women made up only 7.3 per cent of the representatives voted into the Lower House. However, compared to the previous parliament, women's share improved by almost 3 per cent (women's share in previous parliament was 4.6 per cent). Furthermore, Japan lacks an independent Ministry for Women. Instead there is a Women's Bureau within the Ministry of Labor and the Government's Office for Gender Equality.

There are a number of Japanese NGOs which are promoting equality between men and women, trying to enhance gender awareness, and striving to overcome traditional stereotypes. The Beijing-Japan Accountability Caucus (Beijing JAC) analyses published government documents concerning women. It also meets and lobbies with the Office of Gender Equality for the purpose of creating a Ministry for Women and enacting new legislation regarding violence against women. Finally, it is urging women parliamentarians to establish a special committee on women to oversee implementation of the Beijing Platform for Action. Another NGO, Wings Kyoto, was founded in 1994 with the aim of supporting women's independence and increasing their participation in government.

Gender Issues - Korea

The situation of Korean women has deteriorated dramatically since the economic crisis of 1997.. The difficulties confronting Korean working women can be divided into two broad categories: being forced out of the labor market and worsening working conditions.

The economic crisis has brought many changes to Korean society. One of them is that the traditional patriarchal ideology that men are breadwinners and women are under their protection reappeared. In particular, conservative media and opinion makers have been responsible for promulgating this outdated patriarchal belief. As a result, only men's unemployment issues have been highlighted. Conservatives suggest that women give up their jobs and go back to their traditional role, i.e. that of homemakers.

Employers used this conservative ideology to justify ìwomen-first firingî and the exclusion of women from the labor market. Moreover, working women are suffering from deteriorating working conditions and a reduction of benefits. The economic crisis provided employers with an opportunity to decrease or outright abolish maternity protection provisions. At the moment, female participation in the labor force amounts to only 39 per cent.

Korea Women's Associations United (KWAU) was created to consolidate the power of women's organizations working for women's rights and democracy. It has 21 member organizations representing the Korean Women's movement. KWAU strives to build an equal society free from institutional discrimination.

Many Korean NGOs and trade unions are calling for the reduction in working time to forty hours a week in order to create more jobs. Moreover, they demand reforms of conglomerates and more financial assistance to the unemployed. Trade unions and university students have planned some joint action programs in accordance with these NGO strategies.

The comparatively weak position of women in Korean society is reflected in the low number of women in politics. In the Lower House women account for a mere 3.7 per cent of members.

It's clear that active public relations and more education programs are necessary to enhance gender awareness in Korean society, to counter traditional stereotyping and to encourage public support for he NGO initiatives.

Gender Issues - Laos

Laotian's Women's Union (LWU), which is state-run and state-controlled, is the most important advocate for women's rights in Laos. It is recognized under the constitution as the mechanism for promoting equal rights and for mobilizing Laotian women from all ethnic groups to work together to develop the country.

LWU plays a crucial role in improving the quality of life for women throughout the country, particularly in the rural areas. In collaboration with the ministries of Health, Education, Agriculture, Labor and Social Welfare, LWU has the responsibility of monitoring the implementation of all programs concerning women's development. However, Laos does not have an officially recognized Ministry for Women. In addition to the LWU there is the Gender Resource and Information Development Center (GRID), a non-governmental agency set up to improve gender information in Laos.

In accordance with the Beijing Platform for Action the government is committed to improving education and vocational training for women (who make up 60 per cent of the total workforce) in order to enable them to participate in all aspects of life. Moreover, the government is especially concerned with promoting gender awareness in society in order to put into practice equality between men and women as stipulated in the constitution (articles 22/24). With this in mind, the government also cooperates with UNICEF and UNDP.

The percentage of women's participation in the Lower House may amount to 21.2 per cent, but there are hardly any women holding higher political posts. Despite the appearance of equality between the genders, there is still a considerable gap between the official claim to equal rights for women and reality. For example, the rate at which girls drop out of school in rural areas is still very high. The illiteracy rate for Laotian women is estimated to be 28 per cent. Most women are still not aware of the equal rights guaranteed to them by the constitution, or are not confident enough to assert them. Overall, there is a real lack of gender awareness in society. It is particularly the traditional stereotypes and beliefs about women that thwart nearly all efforts to establish equal opportunities. This can be considered the biggest problem in implementing the Beijing Platform for Action.

Gender Issues - Singapore

After gaining independence in 1965, there was high unemployment in Singapore. Therefore, in the 1960's and 70's the development strategy focused on providing incentives for multinational corporations (MNCs) to come to Singapore to invest in low-skilled manufacturing industries that were labor intensive. As part of this strategy women were enticed into the labor force in large numbers. Thus the early economic success of Singapore was in no small measure a result of the participation of women. Even though the country has now shifted its economic development in the direction of less labor-intensive, higher-skilled jobs, the need for women in the workforce is still indisputable. Women make up 40 per cent of the total workforce and nearly all of them are working full-time. Although the economic role of women is crucial to the country's development and welfare, their earnings are generally lower than men's. On average, female incomes are 59 per cent of male incomes. Even in higher skilled jobs, women earn less than their male colleagues.

In contemporary Singaporean society, women are well represented at all levels of the educational system and have nearly equal access to education. However, gaps between men and women still exist. For every 100 males going on to graduate school, there are only 75 females. According to NGO sources, women still face institutionalized discrimination. For example, a gender quota in medical schools stipulates that women may compose no more than one-third of the university faculty.

The Singaporean Constitution guarantees citizens protection against discrimination on the grounds of religion, race, descent or place of birth. There is, however, no mention of gender. As a result of this, discriminatory laws and practices based on gender exist in Singapore. Medical benefits for children are only awarded to working fathers and not to working mothers, to mention just one example. These legal inequalities exist for women because the establishment adheres to the traditional ideology which holds that the man is the head of the household.

Despite the growing economic strength of women, society - especially men - still clings to traditional patriarchal attitudes.

As a result, women in Singapore do not yet have equal access to important positions in the public and private sectors. There is a lack of women on national councils, committees and commissions. Women still play a rather small role in politics. In the Lower House they comprise a mere 4.3 per cent of members.

Quite a number of Singaporean NGOs are promoting equality between men and women, trying to enhance gender awareness, and working to counteract traditional stereotyping. The Association of Women for Action and Research (AWARE) was founded in 1985 as an independent, non-political, non-religious organization to promote the awareness of women in all areas including partnerships with men, the attainment of full equality and equal opportunities for women. Singapore Council of Women's Organizations, an umbrella organization comprising 42 women's agencies, monitors employment policies and economic empowerment of women, education, family policies, women's health, and family violence.

Gender Issues -Vietnam

Vietnam has a relatively strong women's liberation movement. Vietnam Women's Union (VWU) was founded on October 20, 1930. It is a mass organization representing all strata of women throughout the country. From the outset the union, which claims about 40 per cent of Vietnamese women as members, has encouraged women and supported them in their participation in the causes of national defense, construction and development. The National Committee for the Advancement of Women (NCFAW) was established in 1993. Both of these organizations work with government agencies and other mass organizations to supervise the enforcement of laws and implementation of policies relating to women. The NCFAW also aims to assist Vietnamese working women, who constitute about 47 per cent of the workforce in the state sector and 52 per cent in the private sector.

VWU is collaborating with the government, the state bank, and various international agencies in order to increase credit opportunities for poor women by offering revolving loan programs at very low interest rates. VWU also monitors loan services and gives advice and information to women on income generation and business-related problem solving. In 1993, the union loaned US$ 32 million to female entrepreneurs, most of them poor.

Providing women equal access to education is considered a central objective of the Ministry of Education and Training. It has implemented the project 'integrating gender into educational institutions' which aims to enhance gender awareness in educational managers, teachers and students. However, the educational disparity between boys and girls is still striking. While the number of boys and girls attending elementary schools is quite comparable, only 60 per cent of girls attend secondary school (compared to 70 per cent of boys), and only 19 per cent of girls attend university (compared to 27 per cent of the boys). In the area of continuing education for employees the situation is quite similar: only 25 per cent of female employees participate in continuing education programs. This is not only explained by the fact that the courses take place in the evening and not during regular working hours. It is also attributable to the fact that most women have to pay for continuing education by themselves while the company finances most programs for men. Acting upon VWU's recommendations, the government has instructed the ministry to work with the union and other concerned agencies to conduct more research on this issue.

The first Vietnamese women's congress was held in 1950. Since then the National Women's Congress has convened once every five years. Many Vietnamese ministries, as well as cities and provinces, have organized conferences, workshops and training programs which have aimed to increase awareness of gender issues. In the less than three years since the signing of the 'National Plan of Action for the advancement of Woman in Vietnam by the year 2000', an impressive resume can already be drawn.

Vietnam has become the leading ASEAN country concerning the percentage of women's participation in the Lower House (26 per cent). Furthermore, Vietnam has a female Vice President in Nguyen Thi Binh.

However, the percentages can be misleading. According to the VWU, the economic reforms, which have opened the Vietnamese market, have left many women worse off then they were under the old system. Traditional stereotyping of women's subservience still exists. Despite all the progress that has been made and the fact that women are officially guaranteed equal rights, the greater part of Vietnamese society still expects women to display the traditional ideals of diligence, beauty, grace and virtue, while Vietnamese men continue to wield power and accumulate wealth. This is demonstrated by the fact that women perform about 60 per cent of the agricultural workload while earning only 72 per cent of the average male wage.

Therefore it can be concluded that even though Vietnamese women have achieved a great deal, there is still a long way to go in the struggle for greater equality.